A biological sensor or biosensor is an analytical tool that can detect a chemical, substance, or organism using a biologically sensitive component coupled with a transducing element to convert a detection event into a signal for processing and/or display. Biosensors can use biological materials as the biologically sensitive component, e.g., such as biomolecules including enzymes, antibodies, aptamers, peptides, nucleic acids, etc., or small molecules such as carbohydrates, as well as virus and living cells. For example, molecular biosensors can be configured to use specific chemical properties or molecular recognition mechanisms to identify target agents. Biosensors can use the transducer element to transform a signal resulting from the detection of an analyte by the biologically sensitive component into a different signal that can be addressed by a suitable transduction mechanism, for example, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, physicochemical, electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, or others.